One of the primary aims of liberal culture since its conception has always been the promotion and improvement of the human condition. Out of this pursuit has risen the concept of "quality-of-life," an amorphous and qualitative term which is easy to understand, yet difficult to define. In order to understand quality-of-life as it exists among the various economic classes, being high-, middle-, and low-income classes, one must study the relationship which exists between these classes, the concept of quality-of-life, and the conditions extant in a particular place. These complex relationships are explicitly visible in the topic of this work, Pushmataha County, Oklahoma.

In order to simplify and organize this work I have divided it into several general categories. These include: land forms, vegetation, and climate; population change; income and employment; transportation processes; urbanization and population density; and recreational opportunities.

I. Land forms, Vegetation, and Climate of Pushmataha County:

Pushmataha County may effectively be divided into two general regions: Northeastern Pushmataha and Western Pushmataha. Northeastern Pushmataha is dominated by the Kiamichi Mountains branch of the Ouachita Mountains, an extension of the Ozark Plateau (Getis 38). We may consider (for the sake of simplicity) the 'border' between the northeast and the west as running southeast from the southern tip of Sardis Lake down along the Sardis branch of the Kiamichi River (which connects to the main river at the town of Clayton) and down to Cloudy Creek, which runs southeast into Pine Creek Lake of McCurtain County. Western Pushmataha, accounting for about of the land area of the county, is part of the inland-most branch of the Gulf-Atlantic Coastal Plain, the Western Southern Forest (Getis 35-6).

The Kiamichi River runs west-southwest from the Oauchitas, gradually curving until it shifts southwards, then suddenly altering its course until it flows east. From there it shifts southeast just as it exits the county. Ceder Creek also flows from the Ouachitas west-southwest, but never curves and eventually merges with the Kiamichi. Also, Cloudy Creek flows from the southwest edge of the Ouachitas into Pine Creek Lake. There are a number of other small creeks in the county, all of which flow either from the Ouachitas or the northwest, all of which eventually merge with the Kiamichi River or Cloudy Creek.

Western Pushmataha's vegetation patterns are, as Getis puts it, "a complex mosaic of grasslands and oak prairie (Getis 36)." This is opposed to the northeast which is heavily forested (Getis 38).

The average daily temperature of Pushmataha County in January is 30-40F while the mean water vapor content at the same time is 2-4 millibars (MB). The average daily temperature in July is 80-90F while the average mean water vapor is 22-24mb. Mean annual precipitation in Pushmataha County is between 40-50in (Getis 61). Furthermore, Pushmataha County has 3-4 mean annual days of hail (Getis 69) and 50-60 mean annual days with lightning (Getis 7).

Pushmataha County also is subject to punishing tornados. Getis note that there are 5-7 tornados per ten thousand square miles in its region per year (Getis 73). In fact, between 1950 and 1996 a total of some 22 tornados struck Pushmataha County (Pushmataha County Tornados 1), as illustrated by Table 1.

(miles)

(yards)

Therefore, we find a number of major issues regarding quality-of-life in Pushmataha County, including temperature,hail, tornadoes, and general climate. The low temperatures in the winter might be a detriment to quality-of-life due to the high cost of heating. Therefore, it would affect all income classes, but particularly low-income persons. Indeed, if one is low income and during the course of the winter became homeless then the cold weather would for most likely force a hasty retreat to warmer climes. The issue of hail is also important to the members of all income classes, but primarily in one economic sphere: agriculture. One good hail has the potential to wipe out an entire year's crop, therefore the fair risk of hail holds with it a potential economic destabilizer. Tornadoes are obviously a danger to members of all economic classes, yet present a particular danger to individuals of low-income who are more likely to live in the structurally weak homes which tornadoes are most likely to ravage (including but not limited to mobile homes). The general climate and environment of Pushmataha County is a varied and rich one, however, and thus may improve the quality-of-life for individuals who find such a climate and environment to be desirable, a highly qualitative point.

II. Population Change, 1900-1990, in Pushmataha County, as Compared to That of Oklahoma and the United States

Population change can also be an indicator of quality-of-life, since generally out migration is indicative of decreasing quality-of-life and in migration is often an indication of increasing quality of life (though there are certainly many exceptions). The United States, for instance, has had a steady growth in population throughout its history, including the twentieth century, due in large part to the high overall quality-of-life in this state which acts a pull force, bringing millions of immigrants into the US every year. Oklahoma's population rose early in its statehood as it was filled with land-hungry migrants (both from within and without the US) and as ever more Native Americans were forced onto Oklahoman reservations. With the Great Depression, however, the population of Oklahoma began to drop, a process which continued through the 1950s. Eventually, however, the Sun Belt and Western US Booms would lead to a shift in migration patterns which would benefit Oklahoma, leading to a rising population as whole since the 1960s.

Pushmataha County, on the other hand, grew in population until the 1930s and the Great Depression hit it and its largely agricultural economy as well. Then in the 1940s, with the beginning of the Second World War and a rise in demand for American Agricultural products and the influx of military spending in Oklahoma (the home to many of America's prisoner of war camps), the population of the county shot up again, now to its highest level. This growth was to be only a temporary anomaly, however, and within two decades had dropped to its lowest level ever, half that of the 1940s. There would be a gradual rise in population up through eighties, but as stagflation began to strangle the country the population began to drop again, eventually to its 1990 level of 10,997. This may indicate that due to its weak economic base Pushmataha lacks population pulls, thus indicating a below average quality-of-life.

III. Income and Employment of Pushmataha County as Compared to that of Oklahoma and the United States

Income and employment are certainly important in the determination of quality of life. When glancing at the figures on Median Household Income one notes instantly a distinct contrast between that of Pushmataha County and Oklahoma and the United States. Pushmataha's Median Household Income is $22,175 below that of the United States and $1,545 below that of Oklahoma. This would indicate that if one seeks to pursue a non-agricultural career in Pushmataha (an emphasis on an agricultural economy might be the cause of the distinctly low average income) then one would be better off pursuing work elsewhere.

Regarding employment in Pushmataha, unemployment is considerably higher within the county then in the United States or Oklahoma (where it is considerably below the national average, a full one percent) as a whole. This again is indicative of a county lacking the economic base necessary for the maintenance of a high quality-of-life, indicating low labor demand and value and high application for welfare benefits. The low- and medium- income are the most likely to be hard hit by this particular aspect of Pushmataha's economy, while high-income people might be able to take advantage of the low labor value if they were to invest in high-labor industries here.

IV. Transportation in Pushmataha County

The County seat is Antlers. . . . Other towns are Darwin,
Rattan, Dela, Oleta, and Corrine, along with Antlers, along
Highway 3. Highway 271 runs north to south through the
county, through the towns of Albion, Tuskahoma, Clayton,
Nashoba, Snow and Finley into Antlers. Just west of Antlers,
you can take Highway 2 through Moyers, Kosoma, Dunbar and
Stanley to Clayton, along the Kiamichi River. At Clayton, take
Highway 43, that heads off to the south west, through Adel,
ducks into Atoka County to Daisy, where you can take a
county road back south into Pushmataha, through Jumbo and
Miller to Highway 3 just a bit west of Dunbar. From Rattan,
east of Antlers, a county road goes to the community of Cloud. (Taylor 2)

This statement by Ethel Taylor, a resident of Pushmataha County, describes the state of transportation in Pushmataha. Indeed, her coverage of the road system is fairly complete. The only other means of transport worth note are the county's two small airports and its sole railroad. One of the airports is just outside of Tuskahoma (serving the northern part of the county), the other lies in the vicinity of Antlers, serving the southwest of the county. The only railroad is the Kiamichi Railroad which connects with Antlers and exits southeast into Choctaw County. The Kiamichi does not provide passenger service.

The Indian Nation Turnpike runs southeast from Atoka County through Antlers and into Choctaw County. US Route 271 enters Pushmataha County centrally along the border of Latimer County, and exits just south of Antlers into Choctaw County. State Route 93 connects Oleta to Choctaw County to the south while State Route 3 exits to the east into McCurtain County (Berry).

The ramifications of the transportation layout of Pushmataha County are obvious. The quality-of-life is lowered considerably among low-income people due to the absolute need for the automobile in order to have any degree of mobility. This leads reduced opportunity for employment, less flexibility and freedom, a distinct limitation on recreational activities, or a high percentage of income flowing into transportation, via automobile purchasing and maintenance, which naturally takes away from the amount of income which can be devoted to other expenditures (home, food, health, etc.).

V. Urbanization and Population Density of Pushmataha County

Pushmataha County is unique in that the majority of its population lives in small towns or villages yet these are far enough apart and small enough that they lack the attributes which would qualify them as urbanized. This is a positive in the sense that it allows for each of the small communities to maintain a sense of community in the sense of the isolated city-states (no doubt the residents of these towns could easily roll several unique attributes which culturally distinguish each of these communities from the other, following suit with the Greek polis-style of community, similar to those of the Appalachians and Midwest). This sense of community is no doubt a boon and improver of the quality-of-life in the county. Yet the lack of a single urban center which contains the vast majority of the developed capital spreads out the economic gravity of the area over to broad a plain for the population/amount of capital to make economically viable, thus Pushmataha County is inherently saddled with a low amount of economic growth "pull" factors, lowering the quality-of-life, most predominantly for low- and middle-income people, yet also affecting high-income families.

The population density of Pushmataha County is 7.9 people per square mile (Land Area, Population, and Density), considerably lower than the national average of 68 people per square mile (Getis 68). Pushmataha County's low population density is important to quality-of-life because it indicates massive amounts of available space with few people utilizing this space. The "mass" of humanity is not concentrated into a narrow amount of territory, therefore it lacks the small type of gravity (economic, population, etc.) that a more geographically unified space would have, lending itself to economic and political impotence. Therefore, while the personal preference of some individuals or families might be for the individualistic, "libertarian" sort of geographic alignment which is found in Pushmataha County, on the whole it probably lowers quality-of-life due to its lack of economic flexibility/growth.

VI. Access to Recreation Opportunities In and Near Pushmataha County

Recreational opportunities are also important in determining the quality-of-life in a particular area. Within the county limits, with its small population, recreational activities are limited, a direct result of its low population. I turn again to Ms. Taylor's description of the county in reference to the available recreational resources within the counties:

When you travel to Pushmataha County. . . there are
accommodations to suit your taste. There are fine motels and
restaurants. Or, if you like to "rough" it, visit Pine Creek State
Park, with camping facilities. At Clayton is Clayton Lake State
Recreation Area, with picnic tables, along the Kiamichi River.
Just north of Clayton is Sardis Lake. To rest from your
searches, fish, swim, bring your boat and water skis. (Taylor 2)

Further opportunities for entertainment include several nearby National and State recreational areas, as well as several major cities (Dallas, Fort Worth, Fort Smith, Oklahoma City, and Tulsa), all within 130 miles. Two primary issues of concern regarding quality-of-life in the realm of recreation in Pushmataha County exist: the low population and the dependence on the automobile for transportation. The latter of these two issues, already discussed above, is important due to the spread out nature of the outdoors activities within the county and the lack of alternate forms of transportation to outlying proximities. This prevents low- and some medium-income families and individuals from having easy, affordable access to those forms of entertainment extant. The former of these two points, that of the low population, is important due to the fact that a low population limits the consumer pull for investment in entertainment within the county, i.e. entertainment and recreation. Thus possibility for the development of entertainment complexes (movies, theaters, malls, etc.) is low due to low profit motivation. This may have something to do with the recent drops in population (young people rarely stay where there is nothing to do if they can afford to move).

Talimena National Park

Summary

Pushmataha County is a unique region with a diverse landscape. Its numerous scattered small towns and low population density have led it to economic stratification and disjunction which prevent the conglomeration of economic gravity into a few particular centers. This prevents the buildup of capital which allows for the development of economic gravity in the county drawing healthy economic growth. Compound this with the lack of transportation means throughout the county (I especially note the single railroad) and one has a picture of economic stagnation. High-income people can no doubt use their economic status and pull to utilize the county to its highest potential, and due to this self-same status are capable of enjoying the freedom of their isolation. Low-income individuals and families, however, may find themselves trapped if they were to reside in this county, their labor value being inadequate to pull them out of poverty, and perhaps even preventing them from being capable of saving enough personal capital to escape their poverty. Middle-income residents of the county would be in between, continually on the edge of economic downfall (due to the overall weak foundation of the county's economic base) yet still able to enjoy the luxuries of "sparse population" life.